source: D. Little, “Causal Explanation inwards the Social Sciences,” Southern Journal of Philosophy (1995) ( link ) It may live on use...
source: D. Little, “Causal Explanation inwards the Social Sciences,” Southern Journal of Philosophy (1995) (link)
It may live on useful to supply a brief work organization human relationship of only about of the key ideas that are oft invoked inwards causal explanations inwards the social sciences. (Here is an before post service that summarized only about electrical flow issues inwards causation research; link. And hither are several before articles on causal explanation; link, link, link.)
The full general thought of a social campaign (X causes Y) goes along these lines: X is a construction or characteristic of social life that varies across social settings in addition to whose presence increases the likelihood of occurrence of Y. The presence of X (perhaps inwards the presence of Y in addition to Z every bit well) contributes to processes leading to Y.
This unproblematic formulation contains several hidden assumptions -- most importantly, that outcomes have causes, that causes retain their characteristics over fourth dimension in addition to across instances, in addition to that in that place are processes or dynamics inside the domain of things in addition to processes that convey alongside only about shape of necessity i educate of circumstances in addition to events onto another.
An example
For example, consider this hypothetical narrative describing a riot inwards a European urban center alongside a large community of impoverished immigrant people:
- (C1) simmering resentment yesteryear immigrant youth of joblessness in addition to depression social esteem
- (C2) estrus moving ridge creating discomfort in addition to misery inwards crowded neighborhoods
- (C3) chronic disrespectful in addition to crude oil constabulary handling of immigrant youth
- (I) forceful arrest of mis-identified immature individual inwards a urban center park, leading to serious injury of the youth
- (O) several days of rioting occur
The associated causal hypothesis goes along these lines: In the context of simmering resentment yesteryear immigrant youth in addition to a blueprint of mistreatment yesteryear police, feelings inwards the community were unusually elevated yesteryear the estrus wave. When the arrest occurred a minor protestation began inwards the park, which spread to other blocks inwards the urban center in addition to eventuated inwards the burning of cars, groovy of store windows, in addition to multiple farther arrests.
Conditions Ci are standing atmospheric condition that played a causal role inwards the occurrence of the riot. The arrest incident was the instigating event, the fit that ignited the social "gasoline". If whatsoever of C1, C2, C3 had been changed half-dozen months earlier, it is unlikely that O would select occurred. Each was necessary for I leading to O inwards the circumstances of the day. If C1, C2, C3 are present, it is probable that only about instigating lawsuit volition occur inwards the normal hustle-bustle of urban life. I was the instigating condition. For researchers seeking full general explanations of urban unrest, C1 in addition to C3 appear to live on strong candidates for mutual causes across many examples of urban riots. Two mechanisms are invoked here: a machinery having to create alongside the individual's propensity to engage inwards protestation ("resentment in addition to mistreatment elevates propensity to protest") in addition to a machinery having to create alongside the spread of protestation ("a minor disturbance betwixt a few teenagers in addition to the constabulary escalates through direct contact alongside other disaffected individuals through the neighborhood").
Here are brief discussions of many of the concepts that are commonly invoked inwards discussions of social causation.
Causal narrative
An organized in addition to temporally directed work organization human relationship of the occurrence of an lawsuit or change, identifying the conditions, circumstances, in addition to events that were causally relevant to its occurrence. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 narrative needs to supply empirical evidence for its empirical claims in addition to theoretical justification for the causal mechanisms in addition to processes it postulates.
Standing condition
Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 status or circumstance that persists through an extended catamenia of fourth dimension in addition to that serves every bit component subdivision of the necessary causal background of a given causal physical care for or mechanism. Persistent racial isolation is a standing status inwards many explanations of the effects of inner urban center poverty.
Instigating event
An instigating lawsuit is an occurrence, including alter of state of only about background property, that triggers a alter inwards only about other belongings or process. The early-morning arrest yesteryear patrons of a blind grunter (unlicensed tavern) inwards Detroit was the instigating lawsuit of the 1967 Detroit riot/uprising.
Necessary condition
Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 status that must live on acquaint inwards gild for a given causal interaction to occur. "If X had non been present, the resultant O would non select occurred."
Sufficient status (conjunction of conditions)
Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 status (or conjunction of conditions) whose presence suffices to convey virtually the outcome. "If X&Y&Z were present, in addition to then O would select occurred."
Counterfactual statements
It is worth underlining the cry for that necessary in addition to sufficient atmospheric condition invoke counterfactual statements: If X had non occurred, Y would non select occurred. The logic of counterfactuals (modal logic) has a controversial in addition to unresolved history. But given that causal linguistic communication e'er implies only about sort of necessity, nosotros cannot dispense alongside counterfactuals in addition to all the same select an adequate causal vocabulary.
INUS status (J. L. Mackie)
J.L. Mackie's piece of work on causation in The Cement of the Universe: Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 Study of Causation brought to closure a long draw of thought virtually the logic of causal relations, culminating inwards his concept of INUS conditions. Consider this complex causal disputation virtually the circumstances causing P:
An interlocked serial of events in addition to processes that, i time initiated yesteryear only about educate of conditions, [usually] brings virtually a given resultant O. The thought that in that place are existent mechanisms embodied inwards the "stuff" of a given domain of phenomena provides a way of presenting causal relations that serves every bit a powerful choice to the "regularity" thought associated alongside Hume. "Poor surgical physical care for on standardized tests yesteryear specific groups is caused yesteryear the machinery of stereotype threat" (Claude Steele, Whistling Vivaldi: How Stereotypes Affect Us in addition to What We Can Do (Issues of Our Time)). This machinery is a hypothesized physical care for inside the cognitive-emotional organization of the subjects of the test. (James Mahoney's survey article on the mechanisms literature is a proficient introduction to the debate; link.)
Causal powers
The thought that certainly kinds of things (metals, gases, armed services bureaucracies) select internal characteristics that Pb them to interact causally alongside the basis inwards specific in addition to knowable ways. This agency that nosotros tin sometimes seat dispositional properties that attach to kinds of things. Metals acquit electricity; gases expand when heated; armed services bureaucracies centralize ascendence functions. (Harre in addition to Madden, Causal Powers: Theory of Natural Necessity)
Probabilistic causal relation
Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 human relationship betwixt Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 in addition to O such that the occurrence of Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 increases/decreases the likelihood of the occurrence of O. This tin live on stated inwards damage of conditional probabilities: P(O|A) ≠ P(O) [the probability of O given Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 is non equal to the probability of O]. For a causal realist, the Definition is extended yesteryear a hypothesis virtually an underlying causal mechanism. [Smoking is a probabilistic campaign of lung cancer [working through physiological mechanisms X,Y,Z]. This is equivalent to Wesley Salmon's criterion of causal relevance (Scientific Explanation in addition to the Causal Structure of the World).
Causal explanation of a singular event
When nosotros are interested inwards the explanation of a unmarried event, a causal narrative leading upwards to that lawsuit is by in addition to large what nosotros are looking for. What led to the outbreak of World War I? Why did Khomeini come upwards to might inwards Islamic Republic of Iran inwards 1979? There are by in addition to large 2 hard problems facing a proposed causal-narrative explanation of a singular event. First, nosotros demand to somehow empirically validate the claims virtually causal mechanisms in addition to processes that are invoked inwards the narrative. But since this is a singular event, nosotros create non select the choice of using experimental methods to empirically essay the claim "X leads yesteryear machinery K to Y" that the narrative proposes. This is i of import argue why machinery theorists select by in addition to large required that specified mechanisms select roughly similar causal properties inwards a gain of circumstances. Circumstances embodying the marrow features of a populace goods work ordinarily Pb to elevated levels of gratis riding -- whether inwards populace radio fundraising, strikes, classroom discussions, or rebellions. Second, in that place is the work of choice realizability in addition to multiple causal pathways leading to the same outcome. If the atmospheric condition leading to World War I were sufficiently ominous, in addition to then whether the assassination of the Archduke or only about other lawsuit brought it virtually is of less explanatory importance. Given that potential instigating events occur alongside a certainly probability, only about lawsuit would select occurred inside those few months that led to war. So it is amend to seat the standing atmospheric condition that made state of war probable every bit the causes, rather than the assassination of the Archduke.
Generalizations virtually the causes of a sort of social entity or event
We are oft interested inwards answering causal questions virtually classes of events: Why create peasant rebellions occur? Why does corruption ascent to such high levels inwards many cities? Why create democracies non wage state of war against each other? Here nosotros are looking for mutual conjunctions of causal factors that tin live on shown to live on causally relevant inwards many such events. It is possible that nosotros volition uncovering that peasant rebellions create non select a unmarried educate of causal antecedents; rather in that place are multiple profiles of peasant rebellions, each alongside a educate of causal atmospheric condition significantly different from the other profiles.
Methods of causal inquiry
How tin social researchers seat causal relations amid social events in addition to structures? There are several groups of methods that social scientists in addition to historians select employed: statistical-causal models, small-N models based on Mill's methods of similarity in addition to divergence (link, link), in addition to instance studies in addition to process-tracing methods through which researchers seek to seat in addition to confirm causal relations inwards private cases. In each instance the method derives from fundamental ideas virtually the nature of causation: the thought that causal relations betwixt several factors gain ascent to statistical regularities when nosotros select a large number of cases; the thought that nosotros tin usage the features of necessary in addition to sufficient atmospheric condition to select cases inwards gild to include or exclude certainly factors every bit causally related to the outcome; in addition to the thought that causal mechanisms in addition to processes tin oft live on observed fairly direct inwards the historical tape (Alexander George in addition to Andrew Bennett, Case Studies in addition to Theory Development inwards the Social Sciences).
Conditions Ci are standing atmospheric condition that played a causal role inwards the occurrence of the riot. The arrest incident was the instigating event, the fit that ignited the social "gasoline". If whatsoever of C1, C2, C3 had been changed half-dozen months earlier, it is unlikely that O would select occurred. Each was necessary for I leading to O inwards the circumstances of the day. If C1, C2, C3 are present, it is probable that only about instigating lawsuit volition occur inwards the normal hustle-bustle of urban life. I was the instigating condition. For researchers seeking full general explanations of urban unrest, C1 in addition to C3 appear to live on strong candidates for mutual causes across many examples of urban riots. Two mechanisms are invoked here: a machinery having to create alongside the individual's propensity to engage inwards protestation ("resentment in addition to mistreatment elevates propensity to protest") in addition to a machinery having to create alongside the spread of protestation ("a minor disturbance betwixt a few teenagers in addition to the constabulary escalates through direct contact alongside other disaffected individuals through the neighborhood").
Here are brief discussions of many of the concepts that are commonly invoked inwards discussions of social causation.
Causal narrative
An organized in addition to temporally directed work organization human relationship of the occurrence of an lawsuit or change, identifying the conditions, circumstances, in addition to events that were causally relevant to its occurrence. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 narrative needs to supply empirical evidence for its empirical claims in addition to theoretical justification for the causal mechanisms in addition to processes it postulates.
Standing condition
Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 status or circumstance that persists through an extended catamenia of fourth dimension in addition to that serves every bit component subdivision of the necessary causal background of a given causal physical care for or mechanism. Persistent racial isolation is a standing status inwards many explanations of the effects of inner urban center poverty.
Instigating event
An instigating lawsuit is an occurrence, including alter of state of only about background property, that triggers a alter inwards only about other belongings or process. The early-morning arrest yesteryear patrons of a blind grunter (unlicensed tavern) inwards Detroit was the instigating lawsuit of the 1967 Detroit riot/uprising.
Necessary condition
Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 status that must live on acquaint inwards gild for a given causal interaction to occur. "If X had non been present, the resultant O would non select occurred."
Sufficient status (conjunction of conditions)
Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 status (or conjunction of conditions) whose presence suffices to convey virtually the outcome. "If X&Y&Z were present, in addition to then O would select occurred."
Counterfactual statements
It is worth underlining the cry for that necessary in addition to sufficient atmospheric condition invoke counterfactual statements: If X had non occurred, Y would non select occurred. The logic of counterfactuals (modal logic) has a controversial in addition to unresolved history. But given that causal linguistic communication e'er implies only about sort of necessity, nosotros cannot dispense alongside counterfactuals in addition to all the same select an adequate causal vocabulary.
INUS status (J. L. Mackie)
J.L. Mackie's piece of work on causation in The Cement of the Universe: Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 Study of Causation brought to closure a long draw of thought virtually the logic of causal relations, culminating inwards his concept of INUS conditions. Consider this complex causal disputation virtually the circumstances causing P:
'All (ABC or DGH or JKL) are followed yesteryear P' in addition to 'All P are preceded by (ABC or DGH or JKL)' (Mackie, 62)Mackie in addition to then defines an INUS condition:
Then inwards the instance described to a higher seat the complex formula '(ABC or DGH or JKL)' represents a status which is both necessary in addition to sufficient for P: each conjunction, such every bit 'ABC', represents a status which is sufficient but non necessary for P. Besides, ABC is a minimal sufficient condition: none of its conjuncts is redundant: no component subdivision of it, such every bit AB, is itself sufficient for P. But each unmarried factor, such every bit A, is neither a necessary nor a sufficient status for P. Yet it is clearly related to P inwards an of import way: it is an insufficient but non-redundant component subdivision of an unnecessary but sufficient condition: it volition live on convenient to telephone telephone this … an inus condition. (62)To simplify:
Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 is an INUS status for P if for only about X in addition to Y, (AX v Y) is a necessary and sufficient status for P, but Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 is non sufficient for P in addition to X is non sufficient for P.Causal mechanism
An interlocked serial of events in addition to processes that, i time initiated yesteryear only about educate of conditions, [usually] brings virtually a given resultant O. The thought that in that place are existent mechanisms embodied inwards the "stuff" of a given domain of phenomena provides a way of presenting causal relations that serves every bit a powerful choice to the "regularity" thought associated alongside Hume. "Poor surgical physical care for on standardized tests yesteryear specific groups is caused yesteryear the machinery of stereotype threat" (Claude Steele, Whistling Vivaldi: How Stereotypes Affect Us in addition to What We Can Do (Issues of Our Time)). This machinery is a hypothesized physical care for inside the cognitive-emotional organization of the subjects of the test. (James Mahoney's survey article on the mechanisms literature is a proficient introduction to the debate; link.)
Causal powers
The thought that certainly kinds of things (metals, gases, armed services bureaucracies) select internal characteristics that Pb them to interact causally alongside the basis inwards specific in addition to knowable ways. This agency that nosotros tin sometimes seat dispositional properties that attach to kinds of things. Metals acquit electricity; gases expand when heated; armed services bureaucracies centralize ascendence functions. (Harre in addition to Madden, Causal Powers: Theory of Natural Necessity)
Probabilistic causal relation
Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 human relationship betwixt Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 in addition to O such that the occurrence of Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 increases/decreases the likelihood of the occurrence of O. This tin live on stated inwards damage of conditional probabilities: P(O|A) ≠ P(O) [the probability of O given Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 is non equal to the probability of O]. For a causal realist, the Definition is extended yesteryear a hypothesis virtually an underlying causal mechanism. [Smoking is a probabilistic campaign of lung cancer [working through physiological mechanisms X,Y,Z]. This is equivalent to Wesley Salmon's criterion of causal relevance (Scientific Explanation in addition to the Causal Structure of the World).
Causal explanation of a singular event
When nosotros are interested inwards the explanation of a unmarried event, a causal narrative leading upwards to that lawsuit is by in addition to large what nosotros are looking for. What led to the outbreak of World War I? Why did Khomeini come upwards to might inwards Islamic Republic of Iran inwards 1979? There are by in addition to large 2 hard problems facing a proposed causal-narrative explanation of a singular event. First, nosotros demand to somehow empirically validate the claims virtually causal mechanisms in addition to processes that are invoked inwards the narrative. But since this is a singular event, nosotros create non select the choice of using experimental methods to empirically essay the claim "X leads yesteryear machinery K to Y" that the narrative proposes. This is i of import argue why machinery theorists select by in addition to large required that specified mechanisms select roughly similar causal properties inwards a gain of circumstances. Circumstances embodying the marrow features of a populace goods work ordinarily Pb to elevated levels of gratis riding -- whether inwards populace radio fundraising, strikes, classroom discussions, or rebellions. Second, in that place is the work of choice realizability in addition to multiple causal pathways leading to the same outcome. If the atmospheric condition leading to World War I were sufficiently ominous, in addition to then whether the assassination of the Archduke or only about other lawsuit brought it virtually is of less explanatory importance. Given that potential instigating events occur alongside a certainly probability, only about lawsuit would select occurred inside those few months that led to war. So it is amend to seat the standing atmospheric condition that made state of war probable every bit the causes, rather than the assassination of the Archduke.
Generalizations virtually the causes of a sort of social entity or event
We are oft interested inwards answering causal questions virtually classes of events: Why create peasant rebellions occur? Why does corruption ascent to such high levels inwards many cities? Why create democracies non wage state of war against each other? Here nosotros are looking for mutual conjunctions of causal factors that tin live on shown to live on causally relevant inwards many such events. It is possible that nosotros volition uncovering that peasant rebellions create non select a unmarried educate of causal antecedents; rather in that place are multiple profiles of peasant rebellions, each alongside a educate of causal atmospheric condition significantly different from the other profiles.
Methods of causal inquiry
How tin social researchers seat causal relations amid social events in addition to structures? There are several groups of methods that social scientists in addition to historians select employed: statistical-causal models, small-N models based on Mill's methods of similarity in addition to divergence (link, link), in addition to instance studies in addition to process-tracing methods through which researchers seek to seat in addition to confirm causal relations inwards private cases. In each instance the method derives from fundamental ideas virtually the nature of causation: the thought that causal relations betwixt several factors gain ascent to statistical regularities when nosotros select a large number of cases; the thought that nosotros tin usage the features of necessary in addition to sufficient atmospheric condition to select cases inwards gild to include or exclude certainly factors every bit causally related to the outcome; in addition to the thought that causal mechanisms in addition to processes tin oft live on observed fairly direct inwards the historical tape (Alexander George in addition to Andrew Bennett, Case Studies in addition to Theory Development inwards the Social Sciences).
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